NAIROBI, Kenya (PAMACC News) – The ozone layer is on track to recover within four decades, with the global phaseout of ozone-depleting chemicals already benefitting efforts to mitigate climate change.This is the conclusion of a UN-backed panel of experts, presented on January 9 at the American Meteorological Society’s 103rd annual meeting. Examining novel technologies such as geoengineering for the first time, the panel warns of unintended impacts on the ozone layer.
On track to full recovery
The UN-backed Scientific Assessment Panel to the Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances quadrennial assessement report, published every four years, confirms the phase out of nearly 99% of banned ozone-depleting substances. The Montreal Protocol has thus succeeded in safeguarding the ozone layer, leading to notable recovery of the ozone layer in the upper stratosphere and decreased human exposure to harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun.
If current policies remain in place, the ozone layer is expected to recover to 1980 values (before the appearance of the ozone hole) by around 2066 over the Antarctic, by 2045 over the Arctic and by 2040 for the rest of the world. Variations in the size of the Antarctic ozone hole, particularly between 2019 and 2021, were driven largely by meteorological conditions. Nevertheless, the Antarctic ozone hole has been slowly improving in area and depth since the year 2000.
“That ozone recovery is on track according to the latest quadrennial report is fantastic news. The impact the Montreal Protocol has had on climate change mitigation cannot be overstressed. Over the last 35 years, the Protocol has become a true champion for the environment,” said Meg Seki, Executive Secretary of the United Nations Environment Programme’s Ozone Secretariat. “The assessments and reviews undertaken by the Scientific Assessment Panel remain a vital component of the work of the Protocol that helps inform policy and decision makers.”
Impacts on climate change
The 10th edition of the Scientific Assessment Panel reaffirms the positive impact that the treaty has already had for the climate. An additional 2016 agreement, known as the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, requires phase down of production and consumption of some hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). HFCs do not directly deplete ozone, but are powerful climate climate change gases. The Scientific Assessment Panel said this amendment is estimated to avoid 0.3–0.5°C of warming by 2100 (this does not include contributions from HFC-23 emissions).
“Ozone action sets a precedent for climate action. Our success in phasing out ozone-eating chemicals shows us what can and must be done – as a matter of urgency – to transition away from fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gases and so limit temperature increase,” said WMO Secretary-General Prof. Petteri Taalas.
The latest assessment has been made based on extensive studies, research and data compiled by a large international group of experts , including many from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European Union.
Geoengineering
For the first time, the Scientific Assessment Panel examined the potential effects on ozone of the intentional addition of aerosols into the stratosphere, known as stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI). SAI has been proposed as a potential method to reduce climate warming by increasing sunlight reflection. Yet the panel cautions that unintended consequences of SAI “could also affect stratospheric temperatures, circulation and ozone production and destruction rates and transport.”
NAIROBI, Kenya (PAMACC News) - Farming of genetically modified crops remain a controversial and emotive issue in many countries across the world. But how important is this technology to smallholder farmers particularly in developing societies?
Generally, genetic engineering is done in agriculture to increase crop yields, reduce costs for food or drug production, reduce need for pesticides, enhance nutrient composition and food quality, enhance resistance to pests and disease, increase food security, and for medical benefits to the world's growing population.
To produce a GM plant, new DNA (hereditary material) with desired traits is transferred into plant cells. The cells are then grown into plants in a laboratory setup using tissue culture technology. The seeds produced by these plants will then inherit the newly altered DNA, which gives it a completely new genetic makeup that is different from the original material.
Though Kenya is targeting different types of GMOs and for different crops with different traits, the most important crop at the moment is the GM maize. On this front, Kenya has been researching on genetically modified maize varieties whose seeds contain an organic pesticide known as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
According to scientists, Bt bacteria, which naturally dwells in the soil, makes proteins that are toxic to some insects when eaten. So far, the pesticide has not been proven to be harmful to humans. Bt toxin have therefore been introduced into the maize seeds to make the resulting crop self protective to pests and insects, particularly the stem borer.
Elsewhere, in America for example, where farmers grow maize on thousands of acres, scientists have used a different DNA (not the Bt) to develop genetically modifies maize varieties that are tolerant to a herbicide known as roundup. Instead of weeding, the field is sprayed with the herbicide from above, and as a result, the herbicide will kill all other crops/weeds on the field apart from the GM maize.
Major concerns
However in Kenya, those opposed to the GM technology have expressed concerns about the Bt type used on the existing varieties. “I agree that Bt is a naturally occurring bio-pesticide, but it is important to note that the Bt being used in Kenya is synthetic, and not natural,” pointed out Ann Maina, the National Coordinator for the Biodiversity and Biosafety Association of Kenya (BIBA Kenya).
Elsewhere, according to a 2012 study published by the United States National Library of Medicine, technologies for genetically modifying foods offer dramatic promise for meeting some areas of greatest challenge for the 21st century.
However, reads part of the article, “Like all new technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown.”
In many countries, controversies and public concern surrounding GM foods and crops commonly focus on human and environmental safety, labelling and consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction and environmental conservation.
The American study points out that that there is need for novel methods and concepts to probe into the compositional, nutritional, toxicological and metabolic differences between GM and conventional crops and into the safety of the genetic techniques used in developing GM crops in order to put the technology on a proper scientific foundation and allay the fears of the general public.
Many developed societies are yet to commercialise GMOs in their countries because they feel that genetic engineering is still a relatively new practice, which means the long-term effects on safety are not yet clear. Even in Africa, GMO crops have been commercialised in only for countries, thus, Burkina Faso, South Africa, Egypt and Sudan. Kenya comes in as the fifth country.
So far, researches are ongoing to find out if there are any health implications of genetically engineered foods on human health, immune system and resistance to antibiotics.
According to the UN World Health Organisation (WHO), there are concerns about the capability of the GMO to escape and potentially introduce the engineered genes into wild populations such as Open Pollinated Varieties (OPV) of maize.
The WHO further expresses concerns about the persistence of the gene after the GMO have been harvested, and that there are chances that the gene products may kill non-target organisms such as important insects that are not pests. It further points out that the genes may lead to the reduction in the spectrum of other plants including loss of biodiversity, and may lead to increased use of chemicals in agriculture.
However, according to the WHO, the environmental safety aspects of GM crops vary considerably according to local conditions.
The place of GMO among smallholders
According to the UN International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), smallholder farmers produce up to 70 percent of Africa's food supply and an estimated 80 percent of the food consumed in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa together. Yet, these farmers have very little access to farm inputs such as fertilisers, which must be used when growing genetically modified crops.
In that respect, Prof Magnus Jirström of Lund University in Sweden observes that African smallholder farmers have a long way to go in order to adhere to proper agronomic practices required for such crops.
“It is important to note that in Sub-Saharan Africa region, farmers apply about eight kilogrammes of fertilisers per hectare of maize crop per year, which is actually nine percent of the global average,” he said in an exclusive interview.
According to Hon. Dr Wilbur Ottichilo, the Governor Vihiga County and a climate change enthusiast, most farmers in his region insist on growing hybrid maize (mostly without or with very little fertilisers) during long rain seasons, and results have always been disappointing.
However, they have always fallen back to the OPVs, which are farmer saved seeds during short rain season. (The OPVs can still produce without synthetic fertilisers and can tolerate tough climatic conditions.)
“Smallholder farmers need to understand that maize farming is not part of their portion,” said Dr Ottichilo in an interview. “In Vihiga, we are encouraging all farmers to consider investing their energy in producing African Leafy Vegetables which give quick and substantial income compared to the usual maize crop,” said the Governor.
The future of smallholders in Kenya
According to Dr Samuel Onyango Omondi from the Department of Agricultural Economics at the University of Nairobi, the magic bullet for small and medium scale farmers in Kenya is water for irrigation.
“Most farmers especially in Ukambani and many other dry parts of the country are suffering simply because they do not have access to water for irrigation and even for domestic use,” said the University don, noting that the government needs to invest in such projects in order to reduce or end hunger and starvation in the country.
This resonates well with a movement known as Operation Mwolyo (food aid) Out (OMO), which has seen farmers in Yatta, Kitui County become food sufficient in the past 10 years. Through the movement, farmer groups helped each other to sink water pans in every homestead through which they harvest surface runoff rainwater whenever it rains.
“In this area, we can stay for years before it rains. But when it rains, it pours,” said Bishop Dr Samuel Masika, the Founder – Christian Impact Missions which spearheaded the movement. “As a result, our farmers have been able to harvest enough water to sustain their horticultural production for longer periods of time,” he said.
Other experts believe that investment in groundwater will solve the water problem for Kenyans in arid and semi arid areas.
According to Prof Richard Taylor, the principal investigator of behavioural patterns of groundwater in Makutapora wellfields in Tanzania, and a professor of Hydrogeology at the University College London (UCL), there is need to study and understand the renewability of groundwater aquifers, their geography and their sizes. Once this is done, then it can be extracted sustainably for people to use for agricultural production among other uses.
“Studies have shown that climate change will alter the local water balance, but its impact on groundwater recharge is likely to be very location-specific,” he said.
The other option for smallholder farmers is to invest in agroecological practices. According to the 2022 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, agroecological principles and practices are feasible adaptation options for the future and stresses related to climate change.
The practice, according to UN FAO is an integrated approach that simultaneously applies ecological and social concepts and principles to the design and management of food and agricultural systems. It seeks to optimise the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment while taking into consideration the social aspects that need to be addressed for a sustainable and fair food system.
(This article was produced with support from Rain Forest Journalism Fund in partnership with Pulitzer Centre)
LIMBE, Cameroon (PAMACC News) – Renewable energy powered ovens introduced in some fishing communities along the coastal regions of Limbe and Douala in Cameroon, are helping the country redress the challenges of dwindling mangrove forests , mitigate the effects of climate change and fight poverty.
Local councils, NGOs and other stakeholders are backing government’s efforts to protect mangroves with the use of alternative energy other than fuel wood for cooking and drying fish by the local communities.
In the coastal towns of Batoke, Idenau fish traders are doing brisk business thanks to the installation of solar-powered ovens to dry fish, preventing what used to be massive destruction swathes of mangrove forest for firewood and spoilage from a lack of other preservation methods.
Fish smokers in these communities say the renewable energy project has improved on their awareness and knowledge about mangrove protection.
“We have come to learn about this new method that permits us dry our fish without much stress with the use of solar ovens and protect our forest,” says Joan Dione, a fish smoker in Idenau whose business is driven by customers from big cities in Cameroon and neighbouring Nigeria and Gabon.
The renewable energy powered ovens provided for fish drying to replace wood along the coastal villages of Batoke, Idenau, Down Beach in Limbe is a mangrove restoration programme supported by the Cameroon government, the Cameroon Wildlife Conservation Society, CWCS, Cameroon Mangrove and Wetlands Conservation Network and the World Wide Fund for Nature,WWF geared at giving life to not only the populace of the local community, but also assure the environmental future of generations not yet born, conservation experts say.
“The alternative energy has gone a long way to not only protect existing mangrove forest and restoring the rich biodiversity of the coastal areas but also improve the livelihood of the community through quality and quantity fish catch” says Timothy Kagonbe, sub-director in charge of local partnership in the ministry of environment and Cameroon focal point in the Inter Governmental Group of Experts on Climate Change.
In 2018, Some 25 fishing groups in Idenau and nearby Batoke in the coastal region of Limbe were also offered solar energy fish drying ovens in by the African Resource Group Cameroon, ARG-CAM working in collaboration with the Limbe city council as part of a wider drive to expand renewable energy like solar across the country.
The women attest the alternative fish drying methods have really improved on their income.
Joan Dione’s daughter Sharon Dione, 23, says in the past, drying a significant quantity of fish of 25 baskets in a day using wood was impossible.
“The process of using wood energy was so difficult, emitting smoke that was dangerous to our health and limited our production ,” says Sharon Dione.
“The arrival of solar energy and solar drying ovens here has changed everything,” she adds.
The Limbe City Mayor, Paul Efome Lisombe Mbole says the coming of alternative energy for fish drying and cooking is a welcome relief to the development drive and environment protection efforts to the coastal city that is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
“The coming of alternative and cheaper energy to our council area is a welcome relief. The project was born out of the need to improve the livelihoods of the people, conserve , protect mangroves and fight against climate change. We are moving to a new world now,” Paul Efome said said.
The Limbe City Council district is a coastal area beset with numerous challenges related to climate change and environmental degradation.
“Given the fragile nature of its ecosystem, it is imperative that all our activities, economic or otherwise, are carried out in a sustainable manner,” the mayor explained.
Douala Coastline
The same efforts have been carried out in the coastal and industrial city of Douala. At Youpwe, a popular fish market in Douala, Cameroons economic capital, the women are always busy smoking of fish. They have been using eco-friendly charcoal to smoke fish.
"It came to us like a surprise that what is considered waste can be used to produce charcoal to dry fish", Ngonno Lizette 42 years old noted.
Another fish smoker in Youpwe, Marie Louis Kuetche, says their overdependence on mangrove to smoke fish was already having a counter effect on their business . « For several years we depended solely on mangrove wood to dry fish. But later we began realizing fish was becoming scarce and from what we gathered this was as a result of the uncontrolled destruction of mangroves, » she explained.
« This new form of charcoal from waste material is very clean and fish dried from it looks bright and sells better in the market" Kuetche added.
The phenomenon is already gaining grounds in different fishing communities as locals strive to protect their mangroves.
In Mouanko in the Sanaga Maritime division of the Littoral Region, women are also switching to these eco-friendly forms of charcoal.
In a bid to also curb the pressure on fishing, a local NGO, Mounako Horrizon 2000 is helping locals diversify their income by involving them in agriculture as alternative source of income.
Same Diyouke, President of the NGO explained how the drive for environmental sustainability led to the birth of converting trash to manure for agriculture. « We are happy this is turning the tides as many of the fish business women are also taking interest in agriculture activities » he says.
For long we watched how our mangroves were being depleted to dry fish, we also saw those who did agriculture practice slash and burn, destroying the ecosystem.
« It was the zeal to curb these unsustainable activities that we started transforming waste to organic fertilizer. Today for the first time rice is cultivated in Mouanko with the use of the compost manure we produced," he added.
Reports show that about 30% of Cameroonians living along the coastal areas of Limbe and Doaual depend on mangrove resources for their livelihoods, particularly fish, timber and non-timber forest products.
Government statistics estimate about 1% of mangroves loss every year. The situation is even higher in the mangrove forests of the Wouri estuary in the industrial city of Douala with some 6.2% destruction rate per year.
Environment experts blame this on multiple factors like surging coastal population, urbanization, fish processing, sand extraction and uncoordinated government and weak laws that not always applied.
“ The government needs to apply its laws by effectively sanctioning defaulters” says Samuel Nguiffo, CEO of the Centre for Environment and Development, an NGO the fights for the rights of forest indigenous communities in Cameroon.
Cameroon’s minister of environment and nature protection, Hele Pierre noted during the launching of tree planting along the coastal area of Limbe,June 12, 2022, that protecting the country’s mangroves was part of government’s efforts to drive forest conservation in the species-rich Congo Basin, home to the world’s second-largest tropical rainforest.
“By restoring disappearing trees along the coast, we are helping local communities develop sustainably, fight poverty, increase their resilience to climate change and contribute to climate change mitigation,” Pierre said.
Tree planting along the Limbe ,Wouri and Kribi Coast is a yearly mangrove restoration programme by government supported by other stakeholders and especiallt the active participation of the local communities.
“ The yearly mangrove restoration efforts is a community affair because the villagers know their future lies in the coastline mangrove,” says Theophilus Ngwene, Programme Executant WWF Coastal Forest programme.
Humped over the soil, villagers and fishermen alike in Limbe, Mouanko and other fishing community along the coast say they have been working feverishly planting stalks of mangrove to replace the swathes destroyed by the population for firewood and building material as well as development projects
Fisherman Ongene Auswald says he has not missed a single mangrove planting session since the last three years. He says the mangrove restoration efforts is already paying off with improved fish catch.
“Since we started caring for the mangroves, we harvest more and more fish,” he says.
“Now, fishermen from as far off as Kribi come to fish on our shores,” Ongene adds.
Fishing has always been the way of life for the people of Mouanko one of the villages off the shores of Wouri river in Cameroon’s economic capital.
Ebounge Ralph 68, chairman of the village fishing community recalled the days of his childhood when fishers used traditional fishing method to make good catch just few meters away from the village.
“But fishing soon become perilous following vast destruction of the Wouri coastline rich mangrove forest” Ebonge reveals.
Environment expert have saluted the conservation efforts especially as it is geared towards reducing poverty and the degradation rates of Cameroon’s coastal mangroves, thereby contributing to strengthening the role of the country’s ecosystem in disaster risk reduction.
‘’ The role of ecosystems in disaster risk management especially in the coastal area cannot be ignored. Ecosystems with strong tree cover reduce the vulnerability of the coastline to floods. Mangroves especially acts as buffers that help to reduce the risk of erosion and inundation,’’ says Timothy Kagonbe.
Experts say Mangrove forests absorb three to four times more carbon than tropical upland forests. In addition their complex root networks are known to serve as a buffer against strong waves, high winds and storm, thus protecting degradation of coastal forest ecosystem.
“Mangroves are not only important to fishermen, acting as breeding ground of fish, but they are good carbon absorbers, an important source of income to the beneficiary communities” says Samuel Nguiffo.
Mangroves make up less than 1% of tropical forests worldwide but are crucial in the fight against climate change because they are more effective than most other forests at absorbing and storing planet-heating carbon.
Environment experts salute the involvement of local communities in mangrove restoration efforts as they stand a better chance of protecting their resources.
“When local communities take ownership of the restoration programme they jealously protect and guard the forest against intrusion from outsiders, says Cecil Ndjebet, member of the African Forest Forum, AFF, governing council.
Globally, mangroves are estimated to be declining at a rate of about one- to two percent per year with human activities contributing to an estimated 2.7 million hectares of lost forests every year on the African continent, Ndjebet says, calling on women to add their voices against any unsustainable exploitation.
“Women across the continent should add their voice to say no to wanton mangrove forest destruction,” Ndjebet said.
VIHIGA, Kenya (PAMACC News) - The Integrated Land and Forest Ecosystem Management project (ILFM) was implemented in Vihiga, Kakamega and Nandi Counties to encourage local smallholder farmers to intensify food production on their farms so that they don’t encroach on Kakamega and Nandi Forests.
The project, which was implemented through support from AGRA and the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) among other partners saw farmers adopt farming of African Leafy Vegetables, use good agronomic practices on their farms, and plant agroforestry trees as a way of protecting the forest biodiversity.
And now, given the huge success of the project, where hundreds of households are now into growing of the African leafy vegetables, Vihiga County Governor, H. E Dr Wilbur Ottichilo has intensified the campaign to ensure that the county becomes the net producer and exporter of the vegetables to major urban areas and to other counties across the country.
In an exclusive interview with PAMACC News the governor said that in the past three decades, Vihiga County was known to be a place for a variety of indigenous vegetables. But this glory was almost getting lost, and he is determined to revive vegetable farming among smallholders in the County.
Why is the County Government of Vihiga keen on promoting farming of African Leafy Vegetables above other crops?
A. Promoting of the African leafy vegetables is one of our flagship projects in Vihiga County, and we are working in collaboration with the Ministry of Culture and Social Services because if you get into history, the people of Vihiga are known as some of the farmers with diverse varieties of indigenous leafy vegetables for several years. Our people are known to eat all types of vegetables including those that are considered as shrubs or weeds among other communities.
If you go back in recent history, when the commuter train used to used to pass through Luanda, our biggest export to Nairobi was traditional vegetables. Personally, I was educated though farming of these vegetables. Every Monday, my mother travelled to Nairobi, and upon arrival, buyers were always waiting at the train station. So she sold them upon arrival, then waited for the return train later in the day.
Where did this glory disappear to?
In the 80s and early 90s, modernisation came in, and people started changing their diets to grow and eat exotic vegetables such as kales and cabbages which are easier to prepare, while others turned to meaty diets. In my youthful days, we ate meat only during Christmas and chicken only when a very important visitor appeared. Otherwise we ate indigenous vegetables all year round.
As a result of modernisation, vegetables such as indelema (vine spinach), omurele (jute mallow), emiro emilulu (bitter flavoured slender leaf) among others started losing popularity. But the truth is that those elderly people who kept eating such vegetables remained very strong with very long life expectancy.
How can the county reclaim the lost glory?
The 2017 manifesto for this county recognises the African leafy vegetables as one of the most important crops, and it is something that must be promoted. This is because it has now come to pass that we need to go back to such vegetables. What we thought was a rich and modern lifestyle has turned out to be a major health hazard. People who fancy meaty diets have developed so many health complications.
As a result, there is a reversal of the equation all over the country. Just recently, people thought that eating traditional vegetables was for the poor. But today, those who eat the African leafy vegetables are perceived as healthier people who care about their diets. It has suddenly become a fashion for people to eat vegetables especially in urban areas.
Consequently, the demand for the indigenous vegetables has gone very high. Even in the supermarkets, the traditional vegetables have a higher demand.
The beauty with these vegetables is that they grow organically without use of any kind of fertilisers, and they are often resistant to common pests and diseases.
How are we going to change the mindset of farmers who are always keen on growing maize and beans?
The culture of maize and beans in this county is something I have been fighting against for the past five years. With our small pieces of land, maize farming is not a viable.
Under the World Bank funded project on value addition known as National Agricultural and Rural Inclusive Project (NARIGP), we have been able to start a campaign against maize and beans, encouraging farmers to invest in agri-business. With horticulture, one stands to make more money because most vegetables are ready after just three weeks.
We have also been working with AGRA and KALRO on another project known as Sustainable Land & Forest Management (SLFM), through which we have been promoting the farming of African leafy vegetables.
Through these two projects, we have made tremendous success because hundreds of households have now embraced the traditional vegetables, and are now making much more money than they used to make before.
Do you know how many tons of indigenous vegetables are produced as a result of these campaigns?
One thing I know is that the production has increased many folds. But at the moment, we do not have a structured formal system that we can use to document our production.
So far, we are asking the farmers to register with cooperatives. Through these, we will be able to start formalising our vegetable business.
From your knowledge, how much can one make from growing indigenous vegetables on one acre piece of land compared to maize?
The difference is huge. Take for example, common cowpea, which matures in less than 30 days and can be harvested for three months before replanting, you will not make less than Sh100 thousands, to be on the conservative side. This can be repeated three times a year, which translates to Sh300 thousands.
But with maize, grown using several farm inputs, you will probably harvest 10 bags, with a gross income of Sh50 thousands, going with the prevailing market prices. This can only be done once in a year.
What is your message to smallholder farmers in Vihiga County.
What I can tell my people is that in this county, maize farming is unsustainable, the soils are tired, and that the best thing is to completely switch to high value crops that can earn better income, and then they can buy maize from the market.
Times have changed, and we must move with time. The error for subsistence agriculture is gone, and what we are advocating for is agribusiness through high value horticulture.
